topologi jaringan

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices.
Network topology is defined as the interconnection of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network.^[1][2] Network Topologies can be physical or logical. Physical Topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical design.
Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network. This shape does not correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on a home network can be arranged in a circle but it does not necessarily mean that it represents a ring topology.
Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes. The study of network topology uses graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical.
A local area network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any given node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more nodes in the network and the mapping of these links and nodes in a graph results in a geometric shape that may be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the mapping of the data flow between the nodes in the network determines the logical topology of the network. The physical and logical topologies may or may not be identical in any particular network.

Basic topology types

The study of network topology recognizes six basic topologies:

• Bus topology
• Star topology
• Ring topology
• Tree topology
• Mesh topology
• Hybrid topology

There are also three basic categories of network topologies:

• Physical topologies
• Signal topologies
• Logical topologies

The terms Signal topology and logical topology are often used interchangeably, though there is a subtle difference between the two.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Physical topologies

The mapping of the nodes of a network and the physical connections between them – i.e., the layout of wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling or wiring system^[1].

[edit] Classification of physical topologies

[edit] Point-to-point

The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints (the line in the illustration above). Switched point-to-point topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony. The value of a permanent point-to-point network is the value of guaranteed, or nearly so, communications between the two endpoints. The value of an on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers, and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.

Permanent (dedicated)

Easiest to understand, of the variations of point-to-point topology, is a point-to-point communications channel that appears, to the user, to be permanently associated with the two endpoints. Children's "tin-can telephone" is one example, with a microphone to a single public address speaker is another. These are examples of physical dedicated channels.

Within many switched telecommunications systems, it is possible to establish a permanent circuit. One example might be a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is programmed to ring only the number of a telephone dispatcher. "Nailing down" a switched connection saves the cost of running a physical circuit between the two points. The resources in such a connection can be released when no longer needed, for example, a television circuit from a parade route back to the studio.

Switched:

Using circuit-switching or packet-switching technologies, a point-to-point circuit can be set up dynamically, and dropped when no longer needed. This is the basic mode of conventional telephony.

[edit] Bus

Main article: Bus network

Bus network topology

In local area networks where bus topology is used, each machine is connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable through some kind of connector. A terminator is required at each end of the bus cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth on the bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the MAC address or IP address on the network that is the intended recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data does match the machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies. However, the low cost of implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of managing the network. Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure. If the network cable breaks, the entire network will be down.

Linear bus

The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has exactly two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk) – all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted over this common transmission medium and is able to be received by all nodes in the network virtually simultaneously (disregarding propagation delays)^[1].

Note: The two endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally terminated with a device called a terminator that exhibits the characteristic impedance of the transmission medium and which dissipates or absorbs the energy that remains in the signal to prevent the signal from being reflected or propagated back onto the transmission medium in the opposite direction, which would cause interference with and degradation of the signals on the transmission medium (See Electrical termination).

Distributed bus

The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are connected to a common transmission medium which has more than two endpoints that are created by adding branches to the main section of the transmission medium – the physical distributed bus topology functions in exactly the same fashion as the physical linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes share a common transmission medium).

Notes:

1.) All of the endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally terminated with a device called a 'terminator' (see the note under linear bus).

2.) The physical linear bus topology is sometimes considered to be a special case of the physical distributed bus topology – i.e., a distributed bus with no branching segments.

3.) The physical distributed bus topology is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a physical tree topology – however, although the physical distributed bus topology resembles the physical tree topology, it differs from the physical tree topology in that there is no central node to which any other nodes are connected, since this hierarchical functionality is replaced by the common bus.

[edit] Star

Main article: Star network

Star network topology

In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub. In contrast to the bus topology, the star topology connects each node to the hub with a point-to-point connection. All traffic that transverses the network passes through the central hub. The hub acts as a signal booster or repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that the hub represents a single point of failure.

[edit] Notes

• A point-to-point link (described above) is sometimes categorized as a special instance of the physical star topology – therefore, the simplest type of network that is based upon the physical star topology would consist of one node with a single point-to-point link to a second node, the choice of which node is the 'hub' and which node is the 'spoke' being arbitrary^[1].

• After the special case of the point-to-point link, as in note 1.) above, the next simplest type of network that is based upon the physical star topology would consist of one central node – the 'hub' – with two separate point-to-point links to two peripheral nodes – the 'spokes'.

• Although most networks that are based upon the physical star topology are commonly implemented using a special device such as a hub or switch as the central node (i.e., the 'hub' of the star), it is also possible to implement a network that is based upon the physical star topology using a computer or even a simple common connection point as the 'hub' or central node – however, since many illustrations of the physical star network topology depict the central node as one of these special devices, some confusion is possible, since this practice may lead to the misconception that a physical star network requires the central node to be one of these special devices, which is not true because a simple network consisting of three computers connected as in note 2.) above also has the topology of the physical star.

• Star networks may also be described as either broadcast multi-access or nonbroadcast multi-access (NBMA), depending on whether the technology of the network either automatically propagates a signal at the hub to all spokes, or only addresses individual spokes with each communication.

[edit] Extended star

A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the physical star topology has one or more repeaters between the central node (the 'hub' of the star) and the peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used to extend the maximum transmission distance of the point-to-point links between the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that which is supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond that which is supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the physical star network is based.
If the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical extended star topology are replaced with hubs or switches, then a hybrid network topology is created that is referred to as a physical hierarchical star topology, although some texts make no distinction between the two topologies.

[edit] Distributed Star

A type of network topology that is composed of individual networks that are based upon the physical star topology connected together in a linear fashion – i.e., 'daisy-chained' – with no central or top level connection point (e.g., two or more 'stacked' hubs, along with their associated star connected nodes or 'spokes').

[edit] Ring

Main article: Ring network

Ring network topology

In local area networks where the ring topology is used, each computer is connected to the network in a closed loop or ring. Each machine or computer has a unique address that is used for identification purposes. The signal passes through each machine or computer connected to the ring in one direction. Ring topologies typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to control access to the network. By utilizing this scheme, only one machine can transmit on the network at a time. The machines or computers connected to the ring act as signal boosters or repeaters which strengthen the signals that transverse the network. The primary disadvantage of ring topology is the failure of one machine will cause the entire network to fail.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Mesh

Main article: Mesh networking

The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.

Fully connected mesh topology

The number of connections in a full mesh = n(n - 1) / 2

Fully connected

Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly and complex for practical networks, although the topology is used when there are only a small number of nodes to be interconnected.

Partially connected mesh topology

Partially connected

The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link – this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a connection between every node in the network.

Note: In most practical networks that are based upon the physical partially connected mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network takes the shortest path (or an approximation of the shortest path) between nodes, except in the case of a failure or break in one of the links, in which case the data takes an alternative path to the destination. This requires that the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing' algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

[edit] Tree

Tree network topology

Also known as a hierarchical network.
The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical.) Each node in the network having a specific fixed number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.This tree has individual peripheral nodes.

1.) A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology must have at least three levels in the hierarchy of the tree, since a network with a central 'root' node and only one hierarchical level below it would exhibit the physical topology of a star.

2.) A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology and with a branching factor of 1 would be classified as a physical linear topology.

3.) The branching factor, f, is independent of the total number of nodes in the network and, therefore, if the nodes in the network require ports for connection to other nodes the total number of ports per node may be kept low even though the total number of nodes is large – this makes the effect of the cost of adding ports to each node totally dependent upon the branching factor and may therefore be kept as low as required without any effect upon the total number of nodes that are possible.

4.) The total number of point-to-point links in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology will be one less than the total number of nodes in the network.

5.) If the nodes in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology are required to perform any processing upon the data that is transmitted between nodes in the network, the nodes that are at higher levels in the hierarchy will be required to perform more processing operations on behalf of other nodes than the nodes that are lower in the hierarchy. Such a type of network topology is very useful and highly recommended.

[edit] Signal topology

The mapping of the actual connections between the nodes of a network, as evidenced by the path that the signals take when propagating between the nodes.

Note: The term 'signal topology' is often used synonymously with the term 'logical topology', however, some confusion may result from this practice in certain situations since, by definition, the term 'logical topology' refers to the apparent path that the data takes between nodes in a network while the term 'signal topology' generally refers to the actual path that the signals (e.g., optical, electrical, electromagnetic, etc.) take when propagating between nodes.

Example

[edit] Logical topology

The logical topology, in contrast to the "physical", is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, twisted pair Ethernet is a logical bus topology in a physical star topology layout. While IBM's Token Ring is a logical ring topology, it is physically set up in a star topology.

[edit] Classification of logical topologies

The logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same classifications as those in the physical classifications of network topologies, the path that the data takes between nodes being used to determine the topology as opposed to the actual physical connections being used to determine the topology

Notes:

1.) Logical topologies are often closely associated with media access control (MAC) methods and protocols.

2.) The logical topologies are generally determined by network protocols as opposed to being determined by the physical layout of cables, wires, and network devices or by the flow of the electrical signals, although in many cases the paths that the electrical signals take between nodes may closely match the logical flow of data, hence the convention of using the terms 'logical topology' and 'signal topology' interchangeably.

3.) Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special types of equipment such as routers and switches.

[edit] Daisy chains

Except for star-based networks, the easiest way to add more computers into a network is by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in series to the next. If a message is intended for a computer partway down the line, each system bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the destination. A daisy-chained network can take two basic forms: linear and ring.

• A linear topology puts a two-way link between one computer and the next. However, this was expensive in the early days of computing, since each computer (except for the ones at each end) required two receivers and two transmitters.
• By connecting the computers at each end, a ring topology can be formed. An advantage of the ring is that the number of transmitters and receivers can be cut in half, since a message will eventually loop all of the way around. When a node sends a message, the message is processed by each computer in the ring. If a computer is not the destination node, it will pass the message to the next node, until the message arrives at its destination. If the message is not accepted by any node on the network, it will travel around the entire ring and return to the sender. This potentially results in a doubling of travel time for data.

[edit] Centralization

The star topology reduces the probability of a network failure by connecting all of the peripheral nodes (computers, etc.) to a central node. When the physical star topology is applied to a logical bus network such as Ethernet, this central node (traditionally a hub) rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only. The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the remaining peripheral nodes will be unaffected. However, the disadvantage is that the failure of the central node will cause the failure of all of the peripheral nodes also.
If the central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way round trip transmission time (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems.
A tree topology (a.k.a. hierarchical topology) can be viewed as a collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy. This tree has individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which are required to transmit to and receive from one other node only and are not required to act as repeaters or regenerators. Unlike the star network, the functionality of the central node may be distributed.
As in the conventional star network, individual nodes may thus still be isolated from the network by a single-point failure of a transmission path to the node. If a link connecting a leaf fails, that leaf is isolated; if a connection to a non-leaf node fails, an entire section of the network becomes isolated from the rest.
In order to alleviate the amount of network traffic that comes from broadcasting all signals to all nodes, more advanced central nodes were developed that are able to keep track of the identities of the nodes that are connected to the network. These network switches will "learn" the layout of the network by "listening" on each port during normal data transmission, examining the data packets and recording the address/identifier of each connected node and which port it's connected to in a lookup table held in memory. This lookup table then allows future transmissions to be forwarded to the intended destination only.

[edit] Decentralization

In a mesh topology (i.e., a partially connected mesh topology), there are at least two nodes with two or more paths between them to provide redundant paths to be used in case the link providing one of the paths fails. This decentralization is often used to advantage to compensate for the single-point-failure disadvantage that is present when using a single device as a central node (e.g., in star and tree networks). A special kind of mesh, limiting the number of hops between two nodes, is a hypercube. The number of arbitrary forks in mesh networks makes them more difficult to design and implement, but their decentralized nature makes them very useful. This is similar in some ways to a grid network, where a linear or ring topology is used to connect systems in multiple directions. A multi-dimensional ring has a toroidal topology, for instance.
A fully connected network, complete topology or full mesh topology is a network topology in which there is a direct link between all pairs of nodes. In a fully connected network with n nodes, there are n(n-1)/2 direct links. Networks designed with this topology are usually very expensive to set up, but provide a high degree of reliability due to the multiple paths for data that are provided by the large number of redundant links between nodes. This topology is mostly seen in military applications. However, it can also be seen in the file sharing protocol BitTorrent in which users connect to other users in the "swarm" by allowing each user sharing the file to connect to other users also involved. Often in actual usage of BitTorrent any given individual node is rarely connected to every single other node as in a true fully connected network but the protocol does allow for the possibility for any one node to connect to any other node when sharing files.

[edit] Hybrids

Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network, but two star networks connected together exhibit a hybrid network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network

• A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
• A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).

While grid networks have found popularity in high-performance computing applications, some systems have used genetic algorithms to design custom networks that have the fewest possible hops in between different nodes. Some of the resulting layouts are nearly incomprehensible, although they function quite well.

Tugas TIK tentang komputer.....

Komputer adalah alat yang dipakai untuk mengolah data menurut prosedur yang telah dirumuskan. Kata computer semula dipergunakan untuk menggambarkan orang yang perkerjaannya melakukan perhitungan aritmatika, dengan atau tanpa alat bantu, tetapi arti kata ini kemudian dipindahkan kepada mesin itu sendiri. Asal mulanya, pengolahan informasi hampir eksklusif berhubungan dengan masalah aritmatika, tetapi komputer modern dipakai untuk banyak tugas yang tidak berhubungan dengan matematika.
Dalam arti seperti itu terdapat alat seperti slide rule, jenis kalkulator mekanik mulai dari abakus dan seterusnya, sampai semua komputer elektronik yang kontemporer. Istilah lebih baik yang cocok untuk arti luas seperti "komputer" adalah "yang mengolah informasi" atau "sistem pengolah informasi."
Menurut sejarah komputer, generasi komputer dibagi menjadi 5 bagian.

Etimologi

Selama bertahun-tahun sudah ada beberapa arti yang berbeda dalam kata "komputer", dan beberapa kata yang berbeda tersebut sekarang disebut disebut sebagai komputer.
Kata computer secara umum pernah dipergunakan untuk mendefiniskan orang yang melakukan perhitungan aritmatika, dengan atau tanpa mesin pembantu. Menurut Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology, kata tersebut digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris pada tahun 1646 sebagai kata untuk "orang yang menghitung" kemudian menjelang 1897 juga digunakan sebagai "alat hitung mekanis". Selama Perang Dunia II kata tersebut menunjuk kepada para pekerja wanita Amerika Serikat dan Inggris yang pekerjaannya menghitung jalan artileri perang dengan mesin hitung.
Charles Babbage mendesain salah satu mesin hitung pertama yang disebut mesin analitikal. Selain itu, berbagai alat mesin sederhana seperti slide rule juga sudah dapat dikatakan sebagai komputer.

Jenis

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Sekalipun demikian, definisi di atas mencakup banyak alat khusus yang hanya bisa memperhitungkan satu atau beberapa fungsi. Ketika mempertimbangkan komputer modern, sifat mereka yang paling penting yang membedakan mereka dari alat menghitung yang lebih awal ialah bahwa, dengan pemrograman yang benar, semua komputer dapat mengemulasi sifat apa pun (meskipun barangkali dibatasi oleh kapasitas penyimpanan dan kecepatan yang berbeda), dan, memang dipercaya bahwa mesin sekarang bisa meniru alat perkomputeran yang akan kita ciptakan di masa depan (meskipun niscaya lebih lambat). Dalam suatu pengertian, batas kemampuan ini adalah tes yang berguna karena mengenali komputer "maksud umum" dari alat maksud istimewa yang lebih awal. Definisi dari "maksud umum" bisa diformulasikan ke dalam syarat bahwa suatu mesin harus dapat meniru Mesin Turing universal. Mesin yang mendapat definisi ini dikenal sebagai Turing-lengkap, dan yang pertama mereka muncul pada tahun 1940 di tengah kesibukan perkembangan di seluruh dunia. Lihat artikel sejarah perkomputeran untuk lebih banyak detail periode ini.

[sunting] Komputer benam

Pada sekitar 20 tahun , banyak alat rumah tangga, khususnya termasuk panel dari permainan video tetapi juga mencakup telepon genggam, perekam kaset video, PDA dan banyak sekali dalam rumahtangga, industri, otomotif, dan alat elektronik lain, semua berisi sirkuit elektronik yang seperti komputer yang memenuhi syarat Turing-lengkap di atas (dengan catatan bahwa program dari alat ini seringkali dibuat secara langsung di dalam chip ROM yang akan perlu diganti untuk mengubah program mesin). Komputer maksud khusus lainnya secara umum dikenal sebagai "mikrokontroler" atau "komputer benam" (embedded computer). Oleh karena itu, banyak yang membatasi definisi komputer kepada alat yang maksud pokoknya adalah pengolahan informasi, daripada menjadi bagian dari sistem yang lebih besar seperti telepon, oven mikrowave, atau pesawat terbang, dan bisa diubah untuk berbagai maksud oleh pemakai tanpa modifikasi fisik. Komputer kerangka utama, minikomputer, dan komputer pribadi (PC) adalah macam utama komputer yang mendapat definisi ini.

[sunting] Komputer pribadi

Artikel utama untuk bagian ini adalah: Komputer pribadi

Komputer pribadi atau personal computer (PC) adalah istilah untuk komputer yang dikenal dan diketahui orang pada umumnya sehingga banyak orang yang tak akrab dengan bentuk komputer lainnya. Hanya orang-orang tertentu saaja yang memakai istilah ini secara eksklusif untuk menunjukkan istilah yang lebih spesifik dan tepat.

[sunting] Bagaimana komputer bekerja

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Saat teknologi yang dipakai pada komputer digital sudah berganti secara dramatis sejak komputer pertama pada tahun 1940-an (lihat Sejarah perangkat keras menghitung untuk lebih banyak detail), komputer kebanyakan masih menggunakan arsitektur Von Neumann, yang diusulkan pada awal 1940-an oleh John von Neumann.
Arsitektur Von Neumann menggambarkan komputer dengan empat bagian utama: Unit Aritmatika dan Logis (ALU), unit kontrol, memori, dan alat masukan dan hasil (secara kolektif dinamakan I/O). Bagian ini dihubungkan oleh berkas kawat, "bus"

[sunting] Memori

modul memori RAM

Di sistem ini, memori adalah urutan byte yang dinomori (seperti "sel" atau "lubang burung dara"), masing-masing berisi sepotong kecil informasi. Informasi ini mungkin menjadi perintah untuk mengatakan pada komputer apa yang harus dilakukan. Sel mungkin berisi data yang diperlukan komputer untuk melakukan suatu perintah. Setiap slot mungkin berisi salah satu, dan apa yang sekarang menjadi data mungkin saja kemudian menjadi perintah.
Memori menyimpan berbagai bentuk informasi sebagai angka biner. Informasi yang belum berbentuk biner akan dipecahkan (encoded) dengan sejumlah instruksi yang mengubahnya menjadi sebuah angka atau urutan angka-angka. Sebagai contoh: Huruf F disimpan sebagai angka desimal 70 (atau angka biner) menggunakan salah satu metode pemecahan. Instruksi yang lebih kompleks bisa digunakan untuk menyimpan gambar, suara, video, dan berbagai macam informasi. Informasi yang bisa disimpan dalam satu sell dinamakan sebuah byte.
Secara umum, memori bisa ditulis kembali lebih jutaan kali - memori dapat diumpamakan sebagai papan tulis dan kapur yang dapat ditulis dan dihapus kembali, daripada buku tulis dengan pena yang tidak dapat dihapus.
Ukuran masing-masing sel, dan jumlah sel, berubah secara hebat dari komputer ke komputer, dan teknologi dalam pembuatan memori sudah berubah secara hebat - dari relay elektromekanik, ke tabung yang diisi dengan air raksa (dan kemudian pegas) di mana pulsa akustik terbentuk, sampai matriks magnet permanen, ke setiap transistor, ke sirkuit terpadu dengan jutaan transistor di atas satu chip silikon.

[sunting] Pemrosesan

Unit Pengolah Pusat atau CPU berperanan untuk memproses arahan, melaksanakan pengiraan dan menguruskan laluan informasi menerusi system komputer. Unit atau peranti pemprosesan juga akan berkomunikasi dengan peranti input , output dan storan bagi melaksanakan arahan-arahan berkaitan.

Berkas:CPU with pins.jpg

Contoh sebuah CPU dalam kemasan Ball Grid Array (BGA) ditampilkan terbalik dengan menunjukkan kaki-kakinya.

Dalam arsitektur von Neumann yang asli, ia menjelaskan sebuah Unit Aritmatika dan Logika, dan sebuah Unit Kontrol. Dalam komputer-komputer modern, kedua unit ini terletak dalam satu sirkuit terpadu (IC - Integrated Circuit), yang biasanya disebut CPU (Central Processing Unit).
Unit Aritmatika dan Logika, atau Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), adalah alat yang melakukan pelaksanaan dasar seperti pelaksanaan aritmatika (tambahan, pengurangan, dan semacamnya), pelaksanaan logis (AND, OR, NOT), dan pelaksanaan perbandingan (misalnya, membandingkan isi sebanyak dua slot untuk kesetaraan). Pada unit inilah dilakukan "kerja" yang nyata.
Unit kontrol menyimpan perintah sekarang yang dilakukan oleh komputer, memerintahkan ALU untuk melaksanaan dan mendapat kembali informasi (dari memori) yang diperlukan untuk melaksanakan perintah itu, dan memindahkan kembali hasil ke lokasi memori yang sesuai. Sekali yang terjadi, unit kontrol pergi ke perintah berikutnya (biasanya ditempatkan di slot berikutnya, kecuali kalau perintah itu adalah perintah lompatan yang memberitahukan kepada komputer bahwa perintah berikutnya ditempatkan di lokasi lain).

[sunting] Input dan hasil

I/O membolehkan komputer mendapatkan informasi dari dunia luar, dan menaruh hasil kerjanya di sana, dapat berbentuk fisik (hardcopy) atau non fisik (softcopy). Ada berbagai macam alat I/O, dari yang akrab keyboard, monitor dan disk drive, ke yang lebih tidak biasa seperti webcam (kamera web, printer, scanner, dan sebagainya.
Yang dimiliki oleh semua alat masukan biasa ialah bahwa mereka meng-encode (mengubah) informasi dari suatu macam ke dalam data yang bisa diolah lebih lanjut oleh sistem komputer digital. Alat output, men-decode data ke dalam informasi yang bisa dimengerti oleh pemakai komputer. Dalam pengertian ini, sistem komputer digital adalah contoh sistem pengolah data.

[sunting] Instruksi

Perintah yang dibicarakan di atas bukan perintah seperti bahasa manusiawi. Komputer hanya mempunyai dalam jumlah terbatas perintah sederhana yang dirumuskan dengan baik. Perintah biasa yang dipahami kebanyakan komputer ialah "menyalin isi sel 123, dan tempat tiruan di sel 456", "menambahkan isi sel 666 ke sel 042, dan tempat akibat di sel 013", dan "jika isi sel 999 adalah 0, perintah berikutnya anda di sel 345".
Instruksi diwakili dalam komputer sebagai nomor - kode untuk "menyalin" mungkin menjadi 001, misalnya. Suatu himpunan perintah khusus yang didukung oleh komputer tertentu diketahui sebagai bahasa mesin komputer. Dalam praktiknya, orang biasanya tidak menulis perintah untuk komputer secara langsung di bahasa mesin tetapi memakai bahasa pemrograman "tingkat tinggi" yang kemudian diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa mesin secara otomatis oleh program komputer khusus (interpreter dan kompiler). Beberapa bahasa pemrograman berhubungan erat dengan bahasa mesin, seperti assembler (bahasa tingkat rendah); di sisi lain, bahasa seperti Prolog didasarkan pada prinsip abstrak yang jauh dari detail pelaksanaan sebenarnya oleh mesin (bahasa tingkat tinggi)

[sunting] Arsitektur

Komputer kontemporer menaruh ALU dan unit kontrol ke dalam satu sirkuit terpadu yang dikenal sebagai Central Processing Unit atau CPU. Biasanya, memori komputer ditempatkan di atas beberapa sirkuit terpadu yang kecil dekat CPU. Alat yang menempati sebagian besar ruangan dalam komputer adalah ancilliary sistem (misalnya, untuk menyediakan tenaga listrik) atau alat I/O.
Beberapa komputer yang lebih besar berbeda dari model di atas di satu hal utama - mereka mempunyai beberapa CPU dan unit kontrol yang bekerja secara bersamaan. Terlebih lagi, beberapa komputer, yang dipakai sebagian besar untuk maksud penelitian dan perkomputeran ilmiah, sudah berbeda secara signifikan dari model di atas, tetapi mereka sudah menemukan sedikit penggunaan komersial.
Fungsi dari komputer secara prinsip sebenarnya cukup sederhana. Komputer mencapai perintah dan data dari memorinya. Perintah dilakukan, hasil disimpan, dan perintah berikutnya dicapai. Prosedur ini berulang sampai komputer dimatikan.

[sunting] Program

Program komputer adalah daftar besar perintah untuk dilakukan oleh komputer, barangkali dengan data di dalam tabel. Banyak program komputer berisi jutaan perintah, dan banyak dari perintah itu dilakukan berulang kali. Sebuah komputer pribadi modern yang umum (pada tahun 2003) bisa melakukan sekitar 2-3 milyar perintah dalam sedetik. Komputer tidak mendapat kemampuan luar biasa mereka lewat kemampuan untuk melakukan perintah kompleks. Tetapi, mereka melakukan jutaan perintah sederhana yang diatur oleh orang pandai, "programmer." "Programmer Baik memperkembangkan set-set perintah untuk melakukan tugas biasa (misalnya, menggambar titik di layar) dan lalu membuat set-set perintah itu tersedia kepada programmer lain." Dewasa ini, kebanyakan komputer kelihatannya melakukan beberapa program sekaligus. Ini biasanya diserahkan ke sebagai multitasking. Pada kenyataannya, CPU melakukan perintah dari satu program, kemudian setelah beberapa saat, CPU beralih ke program kedua dan melakukan beberapa perintahnya. Jarak waktu yang kecil ini sering diserahkan ke sebagai irisan waktu (time-slice). Ini menimbulkan khayal program lipat ganda yang dilakukan secara bersamaan dengan memberikan waktu CPU di antara program. Ini mirip bagaimana film adalah rangkaian kilat saja masih membingkaikan. Sistem operasi adalah program yang biasanya menguasai kali ini membagikan

[sunting] Sistem operasi

Sistem operasi ialah semacam gabungan dari potongan kode yang berguna. Ketika semacam kode komputer dapat dipakai secara bersama oleh beraneka-macam program komputer, setelah bertahun-tahun, programer akhirnya menmindahkannya ke dalam sistem operasi.
Sistem operasi, menentukan program yang mana dijalankan, kapan, dan alat yang mana (seperti memori atau I/O) yang mereka gunakan. Sistem operasi juga memberikan servis kepada program lain, seperti kode (driver) yang membolehkan programer untuk menulis program untuk suatu mesin tanpa perlu mengetahui detail dari semua alat elektronik yang terhubung.

[sunting] Penggunaan komputer

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Anak-anak sedang belajar penggunaan komputer bersama sang guru.

Komputer digital pertama, memiliki ukuran yang besar dan membutuhkan biaya besar untuk pembuatannya. Komputer di masa itu umumnya digunakan untuk mengerjakan perhitungan ilmiah. ENIAC, komputer awal AS semula didesain untuk memperhitungkan tabel ilmu balistik untuk persenjataan (artileri), menghitung kerapatan penampang neutron untuk melihat jika bom hidrogen akan bekerja dengan semestinya (perhitungan ini, yang dilakukan pada Desember 1945 sampai Januari 1946 dan melibatkan dala dalam lebih dari satu juta kartu punch, memperlihatkan bentuk lalu di bawah pertimbangan akan gagal). CSIR Mk I, komputer pertama Australia, mengevaluasi pola curah hujan untuk tempat penampungan dari Snowy Mountains, suatu proyek pembangkitan hidroelektrik besar. Selain itu juga dipakai dalam kriptanalisis, misalnya komputer elektronik digital yang pertama, Colossus, dibuat selama Perang Dunia II. Akan tetapi, visionaris awal juga menyangka bahwa pemrograman itu akan membolehkan main catur, memindahkan gambar dan penggunaan lain.
Orang-orang di pemerintah dan perusahaan besar juga memakai komputer untuk mengotomasikan banyak koleksi data dan mengerjakan tugas yang sebelumnya dikerjakan oleh manusia - misalnya, memelihara dan memperbarui rekening dan inventaris. Dalam bidang pendidikan, ilmuwan di berbagai bidang mulai memakai komputer untuk analisa mereka sendiri. Penurunan harga komputer membuat mereka dapat dipakai oleh organisasi yang lebih kecil. Bisnis, organisasi, dan pemerintah sering menggunakan amat banyak komputer kecil untuk menyelesaikan tugas bahwa dulunya dilakukan oleh komputer kerangka utama yang mahal dan besar. Kumpulan komputer yang lebih kecil di satu lokasi diserahkan ke sebagai perkebunan server.
Dengan penemuan mikroprosesor di 1970-an, menjadi mungkin menghasilkan komputer yang sangat murah. PC menjadi populer untuk banyak tugas, termasuk menyimpan buku, menulis dan mencetak dokumen. Perhitungan meramalkan dan lain berulang matematika dengan spreadsheet, berhubungan dengan e-pos dan, Internet. Namun, ketersediaan luas komputer dan mudah customization sudah melihat mereka dipakai untuk banyak maksud lain.
Sekaligus, komputer kecil, biasanya dengan mengatur memprogram, mulai menemukan cara mereka ke dalam alat lain seperti peralatan rumah, mobil, pesawat terbang, dan perlengkapan industri. Yang ini prosesor benam menguasai kelakuan alat seperti itu yang lebih mudah, membolehkan kelakuan kontrol yang lebih kompleks (untuk kejadian, perkembangan anti-kunci rem di mobil). Saat abad kedua puluh satu dimulai, kebanyakan alat listrik, kebanyakan bentuk angkutan bertenaga, dan kebanyakan batas produksi pabrik dikuasai di samping komputer. Kebanyakan insinyur meramalkan bahwa ini cenderung kepada akan terus.

[sunting] Bagian-bagian komputer

Komputer terdiri atas 2 bagian besar yaitu perangkat lunak (software) dan perangkat keras (hardware).

[sunting] Perangkat keras

• Prosesor atau CPU sebagai unit yang mengolah data
• Memori RAM, tempat menyimpan data sementara
• Hard drive, media penyimpanan semi permanen
• Perangkat masukan, media yang digunakan untuk memasukkan data untuk diproses oleh CPU, seperti mouse, keyboard, dan tablet
• Perangkat keluaran, media yang digunakan untuk menampilkan hasil keluaran pemrosesan CPU, seperti monitor dan printer

[sunting] Perangkat lunak

• Sistem operasi
  Program dasar pada komputer yang menghubungkan pengguna dengan hardware komputer. Sistem operasi yang biasa digunakan adalah Linux, Windows, dan Mac OS. Tugas sistem operasi termasuk (namun tidak hanya) mengatur eksekusi program di atasnya, koordinasi input, output, pemrosesan, memori, serta instalasi software.
• Program komputer
  Merupakan aplikasi tambahan yang dipasang sesuai dengan sistem operasinya

[sunting] Slot pada komputer

• ISA/PCI, slot untuk masukan kartu tambahan non-grafis
• AGP/PCIe, slot untuk masukan kartu tambahan grafis
• IDE/SCSI/SATA, slot untuk hard drive/ODD
• USB, slot untuk masukan media plug-and-play (colok dan mainkan, artinya perangkat yang dapat dihubungkan ke komputer dan langsung dapat digunakan)

[sunting] Jenis komputer

• Komputer analog
• Komputer pulsa
• Mikrokomputer
  • Komputer rumah (home computer)
  • Komputer pribadi (PC)
  • Server
• Minikomputer
• Mainframe computer
• Superkomputer